The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Chemistry Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips IB Chemistry is tough. If you are reading this syllabus, I assume you are interested in potentially taking this course or you are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I'll discuss every topic covered in IB Chemistry Standard Level and IB Chemistry Higher Level and the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand in each topic. IB Chemistry SL and HL Core Both IB Chemistry SL and HL cover the first 11 topics (a total of 95 hours), and HL additionally covers topics 12 to 21 (an additional 60 hours). For both levels, you'll also study one of the four options A-D (15 hours for SL, 25 hours for HL). Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #1: Stoichiometric Relationships- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to the particulate nature of matter and chemical change 1.1 "Atoms of different elements combine in fixed ratios to form compounds, which have different properties from their component elements." "Mixtures contain more than one element and/or compound that are not chemically bonded together and so retain their individual properties." "Mixtures are either homogeneous or heterogeneous." The mole concept 1.2 "The mole is a fixed number of particles and refers to the amount, n, of substance." "Masses of atoms are compared on a scale relative to 12C and are expressed as relative atomic mass (Ar) and relative formula/molecular mass (Mr)." "Molar mass (M) has the units g mol-1." "The empirical formula and molecular formula of a compound give the simplest ratio and the actual number of atoms present in a molecule respectively." Reacting masses and volumes 1.3 "Reactants can be either limiting or excess." "The experimental yield can be different from the theoretical yield." "Avogadro’s law enables the mole ratio of reacting gases to be determined from volumes of the gases." "The molar volume of an ideal gas is a constant at specified temperature and pressure." "The molar concentration of a solution is determined by the amount of solute and the volume of solution." "A standard solution is one of known concentration." Topic #2: Atomic Structure- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The nuclear atom 2.1 "Atoms contain a positively charged dense nucleus composed of protons and neutrons (nucleons)." "Negatively charged electrons occupy the space outside the nucleus." "The mass spectrometer is used to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from its isotopic composition." Electron configuration 2.2 "Emission spectra are produced when photons are emitted from atoms as excited electrons return to a lower energy level." "The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provides evidence for the existence of electrons in discrete energy levels, which converge at higher energies." "The main energy level or shell is given an integer number, n, and can hold a maximum number of electrons, 2n2." "A more detailed model of the atom describes the division of the main energy level into s, p, d and f sub-levels of successively higher energies." "Sub-levels contain a fixed number of orbitals, regions of space where there is a high probability of finding an electron." "Each orbital has a defined energy state for a given electronic configuration and chemical environment and can hold two electrons of opposite spin." Topic #3: Periodicity- 6 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Periodic table 3.1 "The periodic table is arranged into four blocks associated with the four sub- levels- s, p, d, and f." "The periodic table consists of groups (vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows)." "The period number (n) is the outer energy level that is occupied by electrons." "The number of the principal energy level and the number of the valence electrons in an atom can be deduced from its position on the periodic table." "The periodic table shows the positions of metals, non-metals and metalloids." Periodic trends 3.2 "Vertical and horizontal trends in the periodic table exist for atomic radius, ionic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity and electronegativity." "Trends in metallic and non-metallic behaviour are due to the trends above." "Oxides change from basic through amphoteric to acidic across a period." Topic #4: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 13.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Ionic bonding and structure 4.1 "Positive ions (cations) form by metals losing valence electrons." "Negative ions (anions) form by non-metals gaining electrons." "The number of electrons lost or gained is determined by the electron configuration of the atom." "The ionic bond is due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions." "Under normal conditions, ionic compounds are usually solids with lattice structures." Covalent bonding 4.2 "A covalent bond is formed by the electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the positively charged nuclei." "Single, double and triple covalent bonds involve one, two and three shared pairs of electrons respectively." "Bond length decreases and bond strength increases as the number of shared electrons increases." "Bond polarity results from the difference in electronegativities of the bonded atoms." Covalent structures 4.3 "Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence electrons in a covalently bonded species." "The â€Å"octet rule† refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence shell with a total of 8 electrons." "Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable compounds with incomplete octets of electrons." "Resonance structures occur when there is more than one possible position for a double bond in a molecule." "Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron pairs according to VSEPR theory." "Carbon and silicon form giant covalent/network covalent structures." Intermolecular forces 4.4 "Intermolecular forces include London (dispersion) forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding." "The relative strengths of these interactions are London (dispersion) forces dipole-dipole forces hydrogen bonds." Metallic bonding 4.5 "A metallic bond is the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalized electrons." "The strength of a metallic bond depends on the charge of the ions and the radius of the metal ion." "Alloys usually contain more than one metal and have enhanced properties." Topic #5: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 9 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Measuring energy changes 5.1 "Heat is a form of energy." "Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles." "Total energy is conserved in chemical reactions." "Chemical reactions that involve transfer of heat between the system and the surroundings are described as endothermic or exothermic." "The enthalpy change (∆H) for chemical reactions is indicated in kJ mol-1." "∆H values are usually expressed under standard conditions, given by ∆H °, including standard states." Hess’s Law 5.2 "The enthalpy change for a reaction that is carried out in a series of steps is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps." Bond enthalpies 5.3 "Bond-forming releases energy and bond-breaking requires energy." "Average bond enthalpy is the energy needed to break one mol of a bond in a gaseous molecule averaged over similar compounds." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #6: Chemical Kinetics- 7 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Collision theory and rates of reaction 6.1 "Species react as a result of collisions of sufficient energy and proper orientation." "The rate of reaction is expressed as the change in concentration of a particular reactant/product per unit time." "Concentration changes in a reaction can be followed indirectly by monitoring changes in mass, volume and colour." "Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy that colliding molecules need in order to have successful collisions leading to a reaction." "By decreasing Ea, a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction, without itself being permanently chemically changed." Topic #7: Equilibrium- 4.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Equilibrium 7.1 "A state of equilibrium is reached in a closed system when the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal." "The equilibrium law describes how the equilibrium constant (Kc) can be determined for a particular chemical reaction." "The magnitude of the equilibrium constant indicates the extent of a reaction at equilibrium and is temperature dependent." "The reaction quotient (Q) measures the relative amount of products and reactants present during a reaction at a particular point in time. Q is the equilibrium expression with non-equilibrium concentrations. The position of the equilibrium changes with changes in concentration, pressure, and temperature." "A catalyst has no effect on the position of equilibrium or the equilibrium constant." Topic #8: Acids and Bases- 6.5 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Theories of acids and bases 8.1 "A Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acid is a proton/H+ donor and a Brà ¸nsted–Lowry base is a proton/H+ acceptor." "Amphiprotic species can act as both Brà ¸nsted–Lowry acids and bases." "A pair of species differing by a single proton is called a conjugate acid-base pair." Properties of acids and bases 8.2 "Most acids have observable characteristic chemical reactions with reactive metals, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, hydrogen carbonates and carbonates." "Salt and water are produced in exothermic neutralization reactions." The pH scale 8.3 "pH = − log[H+(aq)] and [H+] = 10−pH." "A change of one pH unit represents a 10-fold change in the hydrogen ion concentration [ð   »Ã°   »+]." "pH values distinguish between acidic, neutral and alkaline solutions." "The ionic product constant, ð   ¾Ã°   ¾Ã° â€˜ ¤Ã° â€˜ ¤ = [H+][OH−] = 10−14 at 298 K." Strong and weak acids and bases 8.4 "Strong and weak acids and bases differ in the extent of ionization." "Strong acids and bases of equal concentrations have higher conductivities than weak acids and bases." "A strong acid is a good proton donor and has a weak conjugate base." "A strong base is a good proton acceptor and has a weak conjugate acid." Acid deposition 8.5 "Rain is naturally acidic because of dissolved CO2 and has a pH of 5.6. Acid deposition has a pH below 5.6." "Acid deposition is formed when nitrogen or sulfur oxides dissolve in water to form HNO3, HNO2, H2SO4 and H2SO3." "Sources of the oxides of sulfur and nitrogen and the effects of acid deposition should be covered." Topic #9: Redox Processes- 8 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Oxidation and reduction 9.1 "Oxidation and reduction can be considered in terms of oxygen gain/hydrogen loss, electron transfer or change in oxidation number." "An oxidizing agent is reduced and a reducing agent is oxidized." "Variable oxidation numbers exist for transition metals and for most main-group non-metals." "The activity series ranks metals according to the ease with which they undergo oxidation." "The Winkler Method can be used to measure biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), used as a measure of the degree of pollution in a water sample." Electrochemical cells 9.2 Voltaic (Galvanic) cells "Voltaic cells convert energy from spontaneous, exothermic chemical processes to electrical energy." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (negative electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (positive electrode) in a voltaic cell." Electrolytic cells "Electrolytic cells convert electrical energy to chemical energy, by bringing about non-spontaneous processes." "Oxidation occurs at the anode (positive electrode) and reduction occurs at the cathode (negative electrode) in an electrolytic cell." Topic #10: Organic Chemistry- 11 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Fundamentals of organic chemistry 10.1 "A homologous series is a series of compounds of the same family, with the same general formula, which differ from each other by a common structural unit." "Structural formulas can be represented in full and condensed format." "Structural isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms." "Functional groups are the reactive parts of molecules." "Saturated compounds contain single bonds only and unsaturated compounds contain double or triple bonds." "Benzene is an aromatic, unsaturated hydrocarbon." Functional group chemistry 10.2 Alkanes: "Alkanes have low reactivity and undergo free-radical substitution reactions." Alkenes: "Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and undergo addition reactions. Bromine water can be used to distinguish between alkenes and alkanes." Alcohols: "Alcohols undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions with acids (also called esterification or condensation) and some undergo oxidation reactions." Halogenoalkanes: "Halogenoalkanes are more reactive than alkanes. They can undergo (nucleophilic) substitution reactions. A nucleophile is an electron-rich species containing a lone pair that it donates to an electron-deficient carbon." Polymers: "Addition polymers consist of a wide range of monomers and form the basis of the plastics industry." Benzene: "Benzene does not readily undergo addition reactions but does undergo electrophilic substitution reactions." Topic #11: Measurement and Data Processing- 10 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Uncertainties and errors in measurement and results 11.1 "Qualitative data includes all non-numerical information obtained from observations not from measurement." "Quantitative data are obtained from measurements, and are always associated with random errors/uncertainties, determined by the apparatus, and by human limitations such as reaction times." "Propagation of random errors in data processing shows the impact of the uncertainties on the final result." "Experimental design and procedure usually lead to systematic errors in measurement, which cause a deviation in a particular direction." "Repeat trials and measurements will reduce random errors but not systematic errors." Graphical techniques 11.2 "Graphical techniques are an effective means of communicating the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, and can lead to determination of physical quantities." "Sketched graphs have labeled but unscaled axes, and are used to show qualitative trends, such as variables that are proportional or inversely proportional." "Drawn graphs have labeled and scaled axes, and are used in quantitative measurements." Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds 11.3 "The degree of unsaturation or index of hydrogen deficiency (IHD) can be used to determine from a molecular formula the number of rings or multiple bonds in a molecule." "Mass spectrometry (MS), proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) and infrared spectroscopy (IR) are techniques that can be used to help identify compounds and to determine their structure." Additional Higher Level Topics These topics (a total of 60 hours) are only for Higher Level students. Topic #12: Atomic Structure- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrons in atoms (HL ONLY) 12.1 "In an emission spectrum, the limit of convergence at higher frequency corresponds to the first ionization energy." "Trends in first ionization energy across periods account for the existence of main energy levels and sub-levels in atoms." "Successive ionization energy data for an element give information that shows relations to electron configurations." Topic #13: The Periodic Table: Transition Metals- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand First-row d-block elements (HL ONLY) 13.1 "Transition elements have variable oxidation states, form complex ions with ligands, have coloured compounds, and display catalytic and magnetic properties." "Zn is not considered to be a transition element as it does not form ions with incomplete d-orbitals." "Transition elements show an oxidation state of +2 when the s-electrons are removed." Coloured complexes (HL ONLY) 13.2 "The d sub-level splits into two sets of orbitals of different energy in a complex ion." "Complexes of d-block elements are coloured, as light is absorbed when an electron is excited between the d-orbitals." "The colour absorbed is complementary to the colour observed." Topic #14: Chemical Bonding and Structure- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Further aspects of covalent bonding and structure (HL ONLY) 14.1 "Covalent bonds result from the overlap of atomic orbitals. A sigma bond (ÏÆ') is formed by the direct head-on/end-to-end overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density concentrated between the nuclei of the bonding atoms. A pi bond (Ï€) is formed by the sideways overlap of atomic orbitals, resulting in electron density above and below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding atoms." "Formal charge (FC) can be used to decide which Lewis (electron dot) structure is preferred from several. The FC is the charge an atom would have if all atoms in the molecule had the same electronegativity. FC = (Number of valence electrons)- ½(Number of bonding electrons)-(Number of non-bonding electrons). The Lewis (electron dot) structure with the atoms having FC values closest to zero is preferred." "Exceptions to the octet rule include some species having incomplete octets and expanded octets." "Delocalization involves electrons that are shared by/between all atoms in a molecule or ion as opposed to being localized between a pair of atoms." "Resonance involves using two or more Lewis (electron dot) structures to represent a particular molecule or ion. A resonance structure is one of two or more alternative Lewis (electron dot) structures for a molecule or ion that cannot be described fully with one Lewis (electron dot) structure alone." Hybridization (HL ONLY) 14.2 "A hybrid orbital results from the mixing of different types of atomic orbitals on the same atom." Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic #15: Energetics/Thermochemistry- 7 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy cycles (HL ONLY) 15.1 "Representative equations (eg M+(g) → M+(aq)) can be used for enthalpy/energy of hydration, ionization, atomization, electron affinity, lattice, covalent bond and solution." "Enthalpy of solution, hydration enthalpy and lattice enthalpy are related in an energy cycle." Entropy and spontaneity (HL ONLY) 15.2 "Entropy (S) refers to the distribution of available energy among the particles. The more ways the energy can be distributed the higher the entropy." "Gibbs free energy (G) relates the energy that can be obtained from a chemical reaction to the change in enthalpy (ΔH), change in entropy (ΔS), and absolute temperature (T)." "Entropy of gasliquidsolid under same conditions." Topic #16: Chemical Kinetics- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Rate expression and reaction mechanism (HL ONLY) 16.1 "Reactions may occur by more than one step and the slowest step determines the rate of reaction (rate determining step/RDS)." "The molecularity of an elementary step is the number of reactant particles taking part in that step." "The order of a reaction can be either integer or fractional in nature. The order of a reaction can describe, with respect to a reactant, the number of particles taking part in the rate-determining step." "Rate equations can only be determined experimentally." "The value of the rate constant (k) is affected by temperature and its units are determined from the overall order of the reaction." "Catalysts alter a reaction mechanism, introducing a step with lower activation energy." Activation energy (HL ONLY) 16.2 "The Arrhenius equation uses the temperature dependence of the rate constant to determine the activation energy." "A graph of 1/T against ln k is a linear plot with gradient – Ea / R and intercept, lnA." "The frequency factor (or pre-exponential factor) (A) takes into account the frequency of collisions with proper orientations." Topic #17: Equilibrium- 4 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand The equilibrium law (HL ONLY) 17.1 "Le Chà ¢telier’s principle for changes in concentration can be explained by the equilibrium law." "The position of equilibrium corresponds to a maximum value of entropy and a minimum in the value of the Gibbs free energy." "The Gibbs free energy change of a reaction and the equilibrium constant can both be used to measure the position of an equilibrium reaction and are related by the equation, ∆G ° = −RT ln(ð   ¾)" Topic #18: Acids and Bases- 10 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Lewis acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.1 "A Lewis acid is a lone pair acceptor and a Lewis base is a lone pair donor." "When a Lewis base reacts with a Lewis acid a coordinate bond is formed." "A nucleophile is a Lewis base and an electrophile is a Lewis acid." Calculations involving acids and bases (HL ONLY) 18.2 "The expression for the dissociation constant of a weak acid (Ka) and a weak base (Kb)." "For a conjugate acid base pair, Ka Ãâ€" Kb = Kw." "The relationship between Ka and pKa is (pKa = -log Ka), and between Kb and pKb is (pKb = -log Kb)." pH curves (HL ONLY) 18.3 "The characteristics of the pH curves produced by the different combinations of strong and weak acids and bases." "An acid–base indicator is a weak acid or a weak base where the components of the conjugate acid–base pair have different colours." "The relationship between the pH range of an acid–base indicator, which is a weak acid, and its pKa value." "The buffer region on the pH curve represents the region where small additions of acid or base result in little or no change in pH." "The composition and action of a buffer solution." Topic #19: Redox Processes- 6 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemical cells (HL ONLY) 19.1 "A voltaic cell generates an electromotive force (EMF) resulting in the movement of electrons from the anode (negative electrode) to the cathode (positive electrode) via the external circuit. The EMF is termed the cell potential (E º)." "The standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) consists of an inert platinum electrode in contact with 1 mol dm-3 hydrogen ion and hydrogen gas at 100 kPa and 298 K. The standard electrode potential (E º) is the potential (voltage) of the reduction half-equation under standard conditions measured relative to the SHE. Solute concentration is 1 mol dm-3 or 100 kPa for gases. E º of the SHE is 0 V." "When aqueous solutions are electrolysed, water can be oxidized to oxygen at the anode and reduced to hydrogen at the cathode. "ΔG º = -nFE º. When E º is positive, ΔG º is negative indicative of a spontaneous process. When E º is negative, ΔG º is positive indicative of a non-spontaneous process. When E º is 0, then ΔG º is 0." "Current, duration of electrolysis and charge on the ion affect the amount of product formed at the electrodes during electrolysis." "Electroplating involves the electrolytic coating of an object with a metallic thin layer." The coolest club of them all. Topic #20: Organic Chemistry- 12 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Types of organic reactions (HL ONLY) 20.1 Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions: "SN1 represents a nucleophilic unimolecular substitution reaction and SN2 represents a nucleophilic bimolecular substitution reaction. SN1 involves a carbocation intermediate. SN2 involves a concerted reaction with a transition state." "For tertiary halogenoalkanes the predominant mechanism is SN1 and for primary halogenoalkanes it is SN2. Both mechanisms occur for secondary halogenoalkanes." "The rate determining step (slow step) in an SN1 reaction depends only on the concentration of the halogenoalkane, rate = k[halogenoalkane]. For SN2, rate = k[halogenoalkane][nucleophile]. SN2 is stereospecific with an inversion of configuration at the carbon." "SN2 reactions are best conducted using aprotic, non-polar solvents and SN1 reactions are best conducted using protic, polar solvents." Electrophilic Addition Reactions: "An electrophile is an electron-deficient species that can accept electron pairs from a nucleophile. Electrophiles are Lewis acids." "Markovnikov’s rule can be applied to predict the major product in electrophilic addition reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes with hydrogen halides and interhalogens. The formation of the major product can be explained in terms of the relative stability of possible carbocations in the reaction mechanism." Electrophilic Substitution Reactions: "Benzene is the simplest aromatic hydrocarbon compound (or arene) and has a delocalized structure of Ï€ bonds around its ring. Each carbon to carbon bond has a bond order of 1.5. Benzene is susceptible to attack by electrophiles." Reduction Reactions: "Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols (via the aldehyde). Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols. Typical reducing agents are lithium aluminium hydride (used to reduce carboxylic acids) and sodium borohydride." Synthetic routes (HL ONLY) 20.2 "The synthesis of an organic compound stems from a readily available starting material via a series of discrete steps. Functional group interconversions are the basis of such synthetic routes." "Retro-synthesis of organic compounds." Stereoisomerism (HL ONLY) 20.3 "Stereoisomers are subdivided into two classes- conformational isomers, which interconvert by rotation about a ÏÆ' bond and configurational isomers that interconvert only by breaking and reforming a bond. Configurational isomers are further subdivided into cis-trans and E/Z isomers and optical isomers." "Cis-trans isomers can occur in alkenes or cycloalkanes (or heteroanalogues) and differ in the positions of atoms (or groups) relative to a reference plane. According to IUPAC, E/Z isomers refer to alkenes of the form R1R2C=CR3R4 (R1 ≠  R2, R3 ≠  R4) where neither R1 nor R2 need be different from R3 or R4." "A chiral carbon is a carbon joined to four different atoms or groups." "An optically active compound can rotate the plane of polarized light as it passes through a solution of the compound. Optical isomers are enantiomers. Enantiomers are non-superimposeable mirror images of each other. Diastereomers are not mirror images of each other." "A racemic mixture (or racemate) is a mixture of two enantiomers in equal amounts and is optically inactive." Topic #21: Measurement and Analysis- 2 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Spectroscopic identification of organic compounds (HL ONLY) 21.1 "Structural identification of compounds involves several different analytical techniques including IR, 1H NMR and MS." "In a high resolution 1H NMR spectrum, single peaks present in low resolution can split into further clusters of peaks." "The structural technique of single crystal X-ray crystallography can be used to identify the bond lengths and bond angles of crystalline compounds." Options As a part of your IB Chemistry class you'll cover an additional subject from the list below (typically your teacher chooses which subject you'll cover). Whichever option is chosen, you'll cover 5-7 topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional 3 or 4 topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Materials- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Materials science introduction A.1 "Materials are classified based on their uses, properties, or bonding and structure." "The properties of a material based on the degree of covalent, ionic or metallic character in a compound can be deduced from its position on a bonding triangle." "Composites are mixtures in which materials are composed of two distinct phases, a reinforcing phase that is embedded in a matrix phase." Metals and inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy A.2 "Reduction by coke (carbon), a more reactive metal, or electrolysis are means of obtaining some metals from their ores." "The relationship between charge and the number of moles of electrons is given by Faraday’s constant, F. "Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals with other metals or non-metals." "Diamagnetic and paramagnetic compounds differ in electron spin pairing and their behaviour in magnetic fields." "Trace amounts of metals can be identified and quantified by ionizing them with argon gas plasma in Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Spectroscopy using Mass Spectroscopy ICP-MS and Optical Emission Spectroscopy ICP-OES." Catalysts A.3 "Reactants adsorb onto heterogeneous catalysts at active sites and the products desorb." "Homogeneous catalysts chemically combine with the reactants to form a temporary activated complex or a reaction intermediate." "Transition metal catalytic properties depend on the adsorption/absorption properties of the metal and the variable oxidation states." "Zeolites act as selective catalysts because of their cage structure." "Catalytic particles are nearly always nanoparticles that have large surface areas per unit mass." Liquid crystals A.4 "Liquid crystals are fluids that have physical properties (electrical, optical and elasticity) that are dependent on molecular orientation to some fixed axis in the material." "Thermotropic liquid-crystal materials are pure substances that show liquidcrystal behaviour over a temperature range." "Lyotropic liquid crystals are solutions that show the liquid-crystal state over a (certain) range of concentrations." "Nematic liquid crystal phase is characterized by rod shaped molecules which are randomly distributed but on average align in the same direction." Polymers A.5 "Thermoplastics soften when heated and harden when cooled." "A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a soft solid or viscous state that changes irreversibly into a hardened thermoset by curing." "Elastomers are flexible and can be deformed under force but will return to nearly their original shape once the stress is released." "High density polyethene (HDPE) has no branching allowing chains to be packed together." "Low density polyethene (LDPE) has some branching and is more flexible." "Plasticizers added to a polymer increase the flexibility by weakening the intermolecular forces between the polymer chains." "Atom economy is a measure of efficiency applied in green chemistry." "Isotactic addition polymers have substituents on the same side." "Atactic addition polymers have the substituents randomly placed." Nanotechnology A.6 "Molecular self-assembly is the bottom-up assembly of nanoparticles and can occur by selectively attaching molecules to specific surfaces. Self-assembly can also occur spontaneously in solution." "Possible methods of producing nanotubes are arc discharge, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) and high pressure carbon monoxide (HIPCO)." "Arc discharge involves either vaporizing the surface of one of the carbon electrodes, or discharging an arc through metal electrodes submersed in a hydrocarbon solvent, which forms a small rod-shaped deposit on the anode." Environmental impact- plastics A.7 "Plastics do not degrade easily because of their strong covalent bonds." "Burning of polyvinyl chloride releases dioxins, HCl gas and incomplete hydrocarbon combustion products." "Dioxins contain unsaturated six-member heterocyclic rings with two oxygen atoms, usually in positions 1 and 4." "Chlorinated dioxins are hormone disrupting, leading to cellular and genetic damage." "Plastics require more processing to be recycled than other materials." "Plastics are recycled based on different resin types." Option A: Additional HL Materials Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Superconducting metals and X-ray crystallography (HL ONLY) A.8 "Superconductors are materials that offer no resistance to electric currents below a critical temperature." "The Meissner effect is the ability of a superconductor to create a mirror image magnetic field of an external field, thus expelling it." "Resistance in metallic conductors is caused by collisions between electrons and positive ions of the lattice." "The Bardeen–Cooper–Schrieffer (BCS) theory explains that below the critical temperature electrons in superconductors form Cooper pairs which move freely through the superconductor." "Type 1 superconductors have sharp transitions to superconductivity whereas Type 2 superconductors have more gradual transitions." "X-ray diffraction can be used to analyse structures of metallic and ionic compounds." "Crystal lattices contain simple repeating unit cells." "Atoms on faces and edges of unit cells are shared." "The number of nearest neighbours of an atom/ion is its coordination number." Condensation polymers(HL ONLY) A.9 "Condensation polymers require two functional groups on each monomer." "NH3, HCl and H2O are possible products of condensation reactions." "Kevlar ® is a polyamide with a strong and ordered structure. The hydrogen bonds between O and N can be broken with the use of concentrated sulfuric acid." Environmental impact- heavy metals(HL ONLY) A.10 "Toxic doses of transition metals can disturb the normal oxidation/reduction balance in cells through various mechanisms." "Some methods of removing heavy metals are precipitation, adsorption, and chelation." "Polydentate ligands form more stable complexes than similar monodentate ligands due to the chelate effect, which can be explained by considering entropy changes." Option B: Biochemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to biochemistry B.1 "The diverse functions of biological molecules depend on their structures and shapes." "Metabolic reactions take place in highly controlled aqueous environments." "Reactions of breakdown are called catabolism and reactions of synthesis are called anabolism." "Biopolymers form by condensation reactions and are broken down by hydrolysis reactions." "Photosynthesis is the synthesis of energy-rich molecules from carbon dioxide and water using light energy." "Respiration is a complex set of metabolic processes providing energy for cells." Proteins and enzymes B.2 "Proteins are polymers of 2-amino acids, joined by amide links (also known as peptide bonds)." "Amino acids are amphoteric and can exist as zwitterions, cations and anions." "Protein structures are diverse and are described at the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary levels." "A protein’s three-dimensional shape determines its role in structural components or in metabolic processes." "Most enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts by binding specifically to a substrate at the active site." "As enzyme activity depends on the conformation, it is sensitive to changes in temperature and pH and the presence of heavy metal ions." "Chromatography separation is based on different physical and chemical principles." Lipids B.3 "Fats are more reduced than carbohydrates and so yield more energy when oxidized." "Triglycerides are produced by condensation of glycerol with three fatty acids and contain ester links. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated." "Phospholipids are derivatives of triglycerides." "Hydrolysis of triglycerides and phospholipids can occur using enzymes or in alkaline or acidic conditions." "Steroids have a characteristic fused ring structure, known as a steroidal backbone." "Lipids act as structural components of cell membranes, in energy storage, thermal and electrical insulation, as transporters of lipid soluble vitamins and as hormones." Carbohydrates B.4 "Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y." "Haworth projections represent the cyclic structures of monosaccharides." "Monosaccharides contain either an aldehyde group (aldose) or a ketone group (ketose) and several –OH groups." "Straight chain forms of sugars cyclize in solution to form ring structures containing an ether linkage." "Glycosidic bonds form between monosaccharides forming disaccharides and polysaccharides." "Carbohydrates are used as energy sources and energy reserves." Vitamins B.5 "Vitamins are organic micronutrients which (mostly) cannot be synthesized by the body but must be obtained from suitable food sources." "The solubility (water or fat) of a vitamin can be predicted from its structure." "Most vitamins are sensitive to heat." "Vitamin deficiencies in the diet cause particular diseases and affect millions of people worldwide." Biochemistry and the environment B.6 "Xenobiotics refer to chemicals that are found in an organism that are not normally present there." "Biodegradable/compostable plastics can be consumed or broken down by bacteria or other living organisms." "Host–guest chemistry involves the creation of synthetic host molecules that mimic some of the actions performed by enzymes in cells, by selectively binding to specific guest species, such as toxic materials in the environment." "Enzymes have been developed to help in the breakdown of oil spills and other industrial wastes." "Enzymes in biological detergents can improve energy efficiency by enabling effective cleaning at lower temperatures." "Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of a substance in a food chain." "Green chemistry, also called sustainable chemistry, is an approach to chemical research and engineering that seeks to minimize the production and release to the environment of hazardous substances." Option B: Additional HL Biochemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Proteins and enzymes (HL ONLY) B.7 "Inhibitors play an important role in regulating the activities of enzymes." "Amino acids and proteins can act as buffers in solution." "Protein assays commonly use UV-vis spectroscopy and a calibration curve based on known standards." Nucleic acids(HL ONLY) B.8 "Nucleotides are the condensation products of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and a nitrogenous base- adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) or uracil (U)." "Polynucleotides form by condensation reactions." "DNA is a double helix of two polynucleotide strands held together by hydrogen bonds." "RNA is usually a single polynucleotide chain that contains uracil in place of thymine, and a sugar ribose in place of deoxyribose." "The sequence of bases in DNA determines the primary structure of proteins synthesized by the cell using a triplet code, known as the genetic code, which is universal." "Genetically modified organisms have genetic material that has been altered by genetic engineering techniques, involving transferring DNA between species." Biological pigments (HL ONLY) B.9 "Biological pigments are coloured compounds produced by metabolism." "The colour of pigments is due to highly conjugated systems with delocalized electrons, which have intense absorption bands in the visible region." "Porphyrin compounds, such as hemoglobin, myoglobin, chlorophyll and many cytochromes are chelates of metals with large nitrogen-containing macrocyclic ligands." "Hemoglobin and myoglobin contain heme groups with the porphyrin group bound to an iron(II) ion." "Cytochromes contain heme groups in which the iron ion interconverts between iron(II) and iron(III) during redox reactions." "Anthocyanins are aromatic, water-soluble pigments widely distributed in plants. Their specific colour depends on metal ions and pH." "Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments, and are involved in harvesting light in photosynthesis. They are susceptible to oxidation, catalysed by light." Stereochemistry in biomolecules(HL ONLY) B.10 "With one exception, amino acids are chiral, and only the L-configuration is found in proteins." "Naturally occurring unsaturated fat is mostly in the cis form, but food processing can convert it into the trans form." "D and L stereoisomers of sugars refer to the configuration of the chiral carbon atom furthest from the aldehyde or ketone group, and D forms occur most frequently in nature." "Ring forms of sugars have isomers, known as ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ², depending on whether the position of the hydroxyl group at carbon 1 (glucose) or carbon 2 (fructose) lies below the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ±) or above the plane of the ring (ÃŽ ²)." "Vision chemistry involves the light activated interconversion of cis- and trans- isomers of retinal." Option C: Energy- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Energy sources C.1 "A useful energy source releases energy at a reasonable rate and produces minimal pollution." "The quality of energy is degraded as heat is transferred to the surroundings. Energy and materials go from a concentrated into a dispersed form. The quantity of the energy available for doing work decreases." "Renewable energy sources are naturally replenished. Non-renewable energy sources are finite." "Energy density = energy released from fuel volume of fuel consumed." "Specific energy = energy released from fuel mass of fuel consumed." "The effeciency of an energy transfer = useful output energy total input energy x 100%." Fossil fuels C.2 "Fossil fuels were formed by the reduction of biological compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and oxygen." "Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons that can be split into different component parts called fractions by fractional distillation." "Crude oil needs to be refined before use. The different fractions are separated by a physical process in fractional distillation." "The tendency of a fuel to auto-ignite, which leads to â€Å"knocking† in a car engine, is related to molecular structure and measured by the octane number." "The performance of hydrocarbons as fuels is improved by the cracking and catalytic reforming reactions." "Coal gasification and liquefaction are chemical processes that convert coal to gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons." "A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases produced during human activities. It is generally expressed in equivalent tons of carbon dioxide." Nuclear fusion and fission C.3 Nuclear fusion "Light nuclei can undergo fusion reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "Fusion reactions are a promising energy source as the fuel is inexpensive and abundant, and no radioactive waste is produced." "Absorption spectra are used to analyse the composition of stars." Nuclear fission "Heavy nuclei can undergo fission reactions as this increases the binding energy per nucleon." "235U undergoes a fission chain reaction: U235 92 + n10 → U 236 92 → X + Y + neutrons." "The critical mass is the mass of fuel needed for the reaction to be self-sustaining." "239Pu, used as a fuel in â€Å"breeder reactors†, is produced from 238U by neutron capture." "Radioactive waste may contain isotopes with long and short half-lives." "Half-life is the time it takes for half the number of atoms to decay." Solar energy C.4 "Light can be absorbed by chlorophyll and other pigments with a conjugated electronic structure." "Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy: 6CO2 + 6H2O == C6H12O6 + 6O2" "Fermentation of glucose produces ethanol which can be used as a biofuel: C6H12O6 == 2C2H5OH + 2CO2." "Energy content of vegetable oils is similar to that of diesel fuel but they are not used in internal combustion engines as they are too viscous." "Transesterification between an ester and an alcohol with a strong acid or base catalyst produces a different ester: RCOOR1 + R2OH == RCOOR2 + R1OH." "In the transesterification process, involving a reaction with an alcohol in the presence of a strong acid or base, the triglyceride vegetable oils are converted to a mixture mainly comprising of alkyl esters and glycerol, but with some fatty acids." "Transesterification with ethanol or methanol produces oils with lower viscosity that can be used in diesel engines." Environmental impact- global warming C.5 "Greenhouse gases allow the passage of incoming solar short wavelength radiation but absorb the longer wavelength radiation from the Earth. Some of the absorbed radiation is re-radiated back to Earth." "There is a heterogeneous equilibrium between concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide and aqueous carbon dioxide in the oceans." "Greenhouse gases absorb IR radiation as there is a change in dipole moment as the bonds in the molecule stretch and bend." "Particulates such as smoke and dust cause global dimming as they reflect sunlight, as do clouds." Option C: Additional HL Energy Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Electrochemistry, rechargeable batteries and fuel cells (HL ONLY) C.6 "An electrochemical cell has internal resistance due to the finite time it takes for ions to diffuse. The maximum current of a cell is limited by its internal resistance." "The voltage of a battery depends primarily on the nature of the materials used while the total work that can be obtained from it depends on their quantity." "In a primary cell the electrochemical reaction is not reversible. Rechargeable cells involve redox reactions that can be reversed using electricity." "A fuel cell can be used to convert chemical energy, contained in a fuel that is consumed, directly to electrical energy." "Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are a possible sustainable energy source using different carbohydrates or substrates present in waste waters as the fuel." "The Nernst equation can be used to calculate the potential of a half-cell in an electrochemical cell, under non-standard conditions." "The electrodes in a concentration cell are the same but the concentration of the electrolyte solutions at the cathode and anode are different." Nuclear fusion and nuclear fission(HL ONLY) C.7 Nuclear fusion: "The mass defect (∆m) is the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual nucleons." "The nuclear binding energy (ΔE) is the energy required to separate a nucleus into protons and neutrons." Nuclear fission: "The energy produced in a fission reaction can be calculated from the mass difference between the products and reactants using the Einstein mass–energy equivalence relationship ð   ¸ = ð â€˜Å¡c^2." "The different isotopes of uranium in uranium hexafluoride can be separated, using diffusion or centrifugation causing fuel enrichment." "The effusion rate of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass (Graham’s Law)." "Radioactive decay is kinetically a first order process with the half-life related to the decay constant by the equation ð Å"† = ln 2 /ð â€˜ ¡1 ." "The dangers of nuclear energy are due to the ionizing nature of the radiation it produces which leads to the production of oxygen free radicals such as superoxide (O2-), and hydroxyl (HO ·). These free radicals can initiate chain reactions that can damage DNA and enzymes in living cells." Photovoltaic cells and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC)(HL ONLY) C.8 "Molecules with longer conjugated systems absorb light of longer wavelength." "The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases with an increase in temperature whereas the conductivity of metals decreases." "The conductivity of silicon can be increased by doping to produce n-type and p- type semiconductors." "Solar energy can be converted to electricity in a photovoltaic cell." "DSSCs imitate the way in which plants harness solar energy. Electrons are "injected" from an excited molecule directly into the TiO2 semiconductor." "The use of nanoparticles coated with light-absorbing dye increases the effective surface area and allows more light over a wider range of the visible spectrum to be absorbed." Option D: Medicinal Chemistry- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Pharmaceutical products and drug action D.1 "In animal studies, the therapeutic index is the lethal dose of a drug for 50% of the population (LD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "In humans, the therapeutic index is the toxic dose of a drug for 50% of the population (TD50) divided by the minimum effective dose for 50% of the population (ED50)." "The therapeutic window is the range of dosages between the minimum amounts of the drug that produce the desired effect and a medically unacceptable adverse effect." "Dosage, tolerance, addiction and side effects are considerations of drug administration." "Bioavailability is the fraction of the administered dosage that reaches the target part of the human body." "The main steps in the development of synthetic drugs include identifying the need and structure, synthesis, yield and extraction." "Drug–receptor interactions are based on the structure of the drug and the site of activity." Aspirin and penicillin D.2 Aspirin: "Mild analgesics function by intercepting the pain stimulus at the source, often by interfering with the production of substances that cause pain, swelling or fever." "Aspirin is prepared from salicylic acid." "Aspirin can be used as an anticoagulant, in prevention of the recurrence of heart attacks and strokes and as a prophylactic." Penicillin: "Penicillins are antibiotics produced by fungi." "A beta-lactam ring is a part of the core structure of penicillins." "Some antibiotics work by preventing cross-linking of the bacterial cell walls." "Modifying the side-chain results in penicillins that are more resistant to the penicillinase enzyme." Opiates D.3 "The ability of a drug to cross the blood–brain barrier depends on its chemical structure and solubility in water and lipids." "Opiates are natural narcotic analgesics that are derived from the opium poppy." "Morphine and codeine are used as strong analgesics. Strong analgesics work by temporarily bonding to receptor sites in the brain, preventing the transmission of pain impulses without depressing the central nervous system." "Medical use and addictive properties of opiate compounds are related to the presence of opioid receptors in the brain." pH regulation of the stomach D.4 "Non-specific reactions, such as the use of antacids, are those that work to reduce the excess stomach acid." "Active metabolites are the active forms of a drug after it has been processed by the body." Antiviral medications D.5 "Viruses lack a cell structure and so are more difficult to target with drugs than bacteria." "Antiviral drugs may work by altering the cell’s genetic material so that the virus cannot use it to multiply. Alternatively, they may prevent the viruses from multiplying by blocking enzyme activity within the host cell." Environmental impact of some medications D.6 "High-level waste (HLW) is waste that gives off large amounts of ionizing radiation for a long time." "Low-level waste (LLW) is waste that gives off small amounts of ionizing radiation for a short time." "Antibiotic resistance occurs when micro-organisms become resistant to antibacterials." Option D: Additional HL Medicinal Chemistry Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Taxol- a chiral auxiliary case study (HL ONLY) D.7 "Taxol is a drug that is commonly used to treat several different forms of cancer." "Taxol naturally occurs in yew trees but is now commonly synthetically produced." "A chiral auxiliary is an optically active substance that is temporarily incorporated into an organic synthesis so that it can be carried out asymmetrically with the selective formation of a single enantiomer." Nuclear medicine (HL ONLY) D.8 "Alpha, beta, gamma, proton, neutron and positron emissions are all used for medical treatment." "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is an application of NMR technology." "Radiotherapy can be internal and/or external." "Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) and Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT) are two methods which are used in cancer treatment." Drug detection and analysis (HL ONLY) D.9 "Organic structures can be analysed and identified through the use of infrared spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and proton NMR." "The presence of alcohol in a sample of breath can be detected through the use of either a redox reaction or a fuel cell type of breathalyser." Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities- 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA)- 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project- 10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Hopefully, yours won't end in smoke! What’s Next? Looking for notes and a study guide for IB Chemistry? We have a complete guide to IB Chemistry, a breakdown (so to speak) of what enzymes are and what they do, and specific tips for balancing chemical equations. You can also find out where to buy past IB Chemistry papers here! Curious about how you can use your chemistry knowledge outside the classroom? Try out these three recipes for slime and see which combination of ingredients has what effect! And if after doing this your kitchen mysteriously comes down with a case of the clogged drains, you'll want to learn how to use muriatic acid safely and effectively to solve the problem. Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Sociology Coursework Help

Sociology Coursework Help Sociology Coursework Help Sociology Coursework Help: Order Custom Writing If you are in need of professional sociology coursework help, you have found the right place to get assistance with writing. Our team of coursework writers is able to handle the most challenging assignments and help you with writing your coursework even if you have to submit the final draft tomorrow morning! The following sociology coursework excerpt is written by one of our experienced writers. If want to get a well-written sociology coursework free of mistakes and in full accordance to instruction points, you should try our custom writing services. We are open 24/7 and we can definitely handle any assignment, within any deadline, and on any topic! In addition, you may review free sample Much Ado About Nothing coursework and read tips on writing business studies coursework. Our paper writing blog includes numerous tips on term papers and reports, essays and dissertations, and all other types of academic assignments! Sociology Coursework Help: Read Excerpt Sociology is a field of study that is more than just a couple of college courses and text books full of abstract theories. Although many other areas of study also are applicable outside the classroom, sociology is one that truly permeates every aspect of life. It is no surprise that many people are now turning to sociology to better understand their lives, careers, and everyday interactions. Many people are realizing that sociology is more than just that required undergraduate college course that they didn't think would ever apply to their life or help advance their career. Karen Jensen explains in the book Careers in Sociology by W. Richard Stephens that I wasn't much interested in the social sciences. I saw my future in medicine, as a nurse (Karen Jensen as quoted by Stephens, 28). Karen later realized though that in order to better understand her professional surroundings and organization she needed to reconsider sociology as a possible and rewarding area of study. Karen says she found in organizational sociology a helpful understanding, or framing, of the work issues (Karen Jensen as quoted by Stephens, 28). Considering that sociology is the study of people and society, it is applicable in almost any person's life and career. Everyone can benefit from learning about sociology and understanding the social aspects of their own organization, coworkers, and, of course, themselves: People have found their way to sociology in numerable ways, which is what the book Careers in Sociology accurately illustrates. Some people reviewed in the book knew right away that their careers would come out of their love for sociology, whether it was a career doing statistical studies or doing social service work in the community. Whatever the career outcome may be, many people started with an interest in sociology in school that lead them into to a certain career. Other people, however, found sociology only after they had already advanced in a career or another area of study. For many, sociology offered something that was needed in their careers or education, whether it was statistical research methods, understanding work organization, or applying theory. Read also: MBA Essay Help Law School Admission Essay Statement of purpose essay Scholarship Application Essay College Essay Helper

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Cold War and U.S. Diplomacy - Assignment Example The diplomatic doctrine President Truman followed was that United States would provide political, economic, and military service to all democratic nations which were under the threat of external or internal authoritarian forces (Milestones: 1945-1952. In the initial years, America really protected the interests of its ally Turkey. It was the nature of America to manipulate its foreign policies for its own advantage. However, it never tried to take any undue advantage from the relation with Turkey unlike it did in Afghanistan. American policy after the Truman declaration was always in favor of Turkey. As America never wanted the Soviet Union to grow bigger than it and the communist party to spread to other parts of the world, it decided to support Turkey; both politically and financially. American foreign policy was thus aimed at promoting democracy in its friendly nations. As Carpenter (1999) points out, though Turkey faced some real threats from the Soviet Union like the overpowerin g of the current government with a communist government, Turkey overcame them with American support and moved to a democratic form of government from the single party government that existed. In return to the support and help rendered by the United States during Cold War, Turkey agreed to send its forces to take part in the Korean War. Also, America provided all support to Turkey to become a member of NATO. Turkey became a founding member of the Central Treaty Organization. After these initial years, the relation between the duo began to deteriorate gradually; though for a short period of time. According to Carpenter (1999), the main reason for the break up was the attack by Turkey on Cyprus on the pretext of saving the ruling government from the imminent coup by army. It was an evident breach of the international law and the UN charter. Moreover, it was against the American policy of opposition against aggression because Turkey was pointlessly attacking Cyprus. Though the United St ates was supposed to adopt stringent measures against its alley as the lack of such measures would invite widespread criticism, the American Congress managed to reduce the measures to a meager ban on arm sales to Turkey. Still, the step resulted in creating too much tension and mistrust in the relation between the duo. However, the action of the US can be justified on the ground that Turkey violated the agreements and international law (cited in ‘Turkish invasion and Cyprus occupation’, 2005). When all these tensions ended, the Turkish leaders once again felt the need to be closer to the US. For, an ally like the US was essential to ensure the future security of Turkey in the Middle East.

Long Bone Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Long Bone - Essay Example Every column is composed of lamellae, concentric bony layers, regularly arranged in a manner determined by the distribution of blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves supplying the bone. These three structures are bundled together in central channels, called Haversian canals, surrounded by lamellae. These canals connect with each other through Volkmann's canals, which breach them perpendicularly. (Young, 2000) In a long bone, the epiphyses are mainly composed of spongy bone, while on the other hand; in the diaphysis, only a thin layer of spongy bone lines the inner surface of the shaft (immediately surrounding the medullary cavity). This type of bone is composed of a network of irregular bony plates, called trabeculae, separated from each other by a maze of intercommunicating spaces filled with bone marrow. These trabeculae consist of irregular lamellae with lacunae composed of osteocytes, which help in bone nutrition. They are also lined with a fine tissue layer, the endosteum, which contains osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts. (Young, 2000) It is the large central cavity of a long bone that is mostly occupied by spongy bone. In premature beings, the cavities of most bones contain red (active) bone marrow that is responsible for the production of blood cells. In adults, red marrow is found only on specific sites while the rest of the cavity is filled with yellow (inactive) marrow, which is mostly adipose tissue. (Young, 2000) Nutrient Foramen: It is the outer opening of the nutrient canal in the shaft of a long bone. It is the point on the bone for the entrance of the nutrient artery, which is responsible for the blood supply to the medullary cavity of the long bone. (OMD, 2000) Diaphysis: Ossification progressively spreads from the primary center of ossification, i.e. the center of the long bone, towards the ends of the bone. The part of the long bone that develops from the primary center, that is, the shaft, is known as diaphysis. (Young, 2000) Epiphyses: At the secondary centers of ossification, located at the cartilaginous ends of the developing bone, cartilage is replaced by bone in the same way as it occurs at the primary centers. Parts of bone that develop from these centers, that is, the ends, are known as epiphyses. Proximal epiphyses refers to the end that grows towards the primary center, while distal epiphyses refers to the end that grows away from the primary center. (Young, 2000) Epiphyseal Plate: It is the plate of cartilage intervening between the diaphysis and epiphyses. This plate is responsible for the elongation of the bone during childhood and early adulthood through constant proliferation of the cartilage. At maturity, this plate is replaced by bone resulting in the fusion of the epiphyses and diaphysis. (Young, 2000) Epiphyseal Line: The junction of the epiphyses and diaphysis indicated later in life by a faint ridge on the outer surface of the long bone is called the Epiphyseal line. (Young, 2000) Articular Cartilage: It is a specialized hyaline cartilage that covers the articulating bone surfaces within the joints. Hence, it is responsible for the smooth movement of bones against one another in a joint.

Project Management and Virtual Teams Essay Example for Free

Project Management and Virtual Teams Essay Athabasca University Abstract Due to advanced communication technologies, globalization and outsourcing most of the project management teams are based on groups of individuals called virtual teams who work across time and space using communication technologies. Members of virtual teams may be employees of same company from same country, or they can be contractors, suppliers and company employees around the globe. Managing projects using virtual teams have some advantages and disadvantages. Also several studies have been done to try to determine the factors that are positively co-related to the effectiveness of virtual teams (Schwalbe, 2011). To manage virtual teams successfully in project management, the project manager must manage these factors successfully and also minimize the impact of disadvantages. This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the virtual teams in project management and outlines the factors that are positively correlated to the success of projects based on virtual teams. The paper also outlines some of the recommendations to successfully manage the virtual team in information technology projects. Keywords Globalization, outsourcing, virtual teams, video conferencing, telecommuting, Project Management, Trust and relationship, Advantages of Virtual teams, Disadvantages of virtual team. Introduction Imagine that you are a project manager in a multinational organization and managing a project to upgrade the server operating system and your team members are from different countries with different cultures and working in different time zones. To complete the project successfully that is based on virtual teams, project manager must understand the advantages and disadvantages of managing virtual teams and factors that positively affect the team members. Today most of the project management teams are based on virtual teams whose members work across time and space using communication technologies and project managers cannot rely on previous methods of project team management where they were able to build trust between team member by social interaction, face-to-face meetings, and direct observations of fellow team member commitment. Literature Review Virtual teams do have some advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantages outlined by Kathy Schwalbe are: 24/7 availability of workers increasing competiveness and responsiveness, lowering the cost of project as many virtual team members do not need office space and support, providing more flexibility and expertise as project managers have access to the talent around the globe and increasing the work/life balance for team members by eliminating fixed office hours and the need to travel to work. (Schwalbe, 2011). Communication and trust are the most important factors that influence the virtual team performance. Saonee Sarker and others discussed the â€Å"theoretical linkages among trust, communication, and team member performance in virtual teams†. (Sarker1, Ajuja, Sarker, Kirkeby, 2001). To prove their argument the researchers identified and tested three proposed models (additive, interaction, and mediation) describing the role of trust in its relationship. The results of the study indicated that the â€Å"mediating† model best explains how communication and trust work together to influence the performance of virtual team members. In simple words them study proves that â€Å"a communicative individual will be more likely to be trusted and will therefore be more likely to be a high performer†. (Sarker1, Ajuja, Sarker, Kirkeby, 2001) Radostina K. Purvanova reviewed experimental literature and emerging field research on virtual teams. Author compared the â€Å"results from both type of literature and found that experimental literature has largely reported negative results for virtual teams, whereas ? eld investigations and case studies of real virtual teams employed by business organizations report positive outcomes for virtual teams. According to the article although results reported by experimental versus field studies are quite different, author concludes that both literatures have revealed negative attitudes toward virtual communication media. Advantages of Virtual Teams The main advantages of virtual teams include: The biggest advantage of virtual team enjoyed by an organization is the associated cost savings. The organization can save huge expenses on real estate, office spaces, utility bills such as gas, electricity, water etc. and executive’s travel. Team members can work from anywhere and anytime of the day. They can choose the place they work based on the mood and the comfort. You can recruit people for their skills and suitability to the job. The location does not matter. There is no time and money wasted for commuting and clothing. Physical handicaps are not an issue. Another advantage is the labour laws, some organizations prefer to have virtual teams because of strict local labour laws. Since the members span the time zones, there could be different team working on the same project 24/7, so when one member sleeps there will be another one somewhere else who would start work where the former had left. This shortens the product development time as well as faster response time to demands in both global and local markets. Disadvantages of Virtual Teams Disadvantages of virtual teams include: Since team members do not frequently meet or do not meet at all, the teamwork spirit may not be present. Some people prefer to be in a physical office when working. These people will be less productive in virtual environments. To work for virtual teams, individuals need to have a lot of self-discipline. If the individual is not disciplined, he or she may be less productive. The cultural difference between the members of virtual teams gives rise to number of conflicts. For example, while an employee from one part of the world would write a straightforward email describing a bad situation; this would be perceived as impolite by a member of the team from other part of the world. This would lead to conflicts, mistrust and difficulties in fruitful collaboration which is so vital for the success of virtual team functioning. These challenges are also precipitated by the absence of non-verbal cues so intrinsic to face-to-face interactions. Many members of virtual teams are adversely affected by the lack of physical interactions. Most of the communications in virtual environment is task-oriented. In today’s society where job is an important social force for most of us because many of our workplace colleagues also constitute our close friends, this gives a not-so-good feeling of social isolation. This in turn counter-effects productivity as well as leads to stress. In the virtual environment, it is better to communicate, clarify, and confirm everything to make sure that all members have the same understanding about the task at hand. This produces of ton of paperwork and files that could quickly fill your archives. Factors that positively affect virtual teams Succession planning and promotions involving virtual team members are important factors and if managed properly, virtual team members will feel that they are receiving recognition and credit and as a result they will be satisfied and their productivity will be increased. (Leonard, 2011) Since team members are not communicating face to face, constructive team and individual feedback early and often becomes more important and if managed properly can avoid many problems before hand. Trust between team members and project leader is an important factor that can affect the performance of team members. One important way to build trust between team members is effective communication. The more they communicate with each other and with project more they build the trust. Well defined and documented team process also important which saves a lot of time for especially new team members to find answers to their questions related to policies and procedures. A team member selection and role preference is also important factor to successfully manage the virtual teams. â€Å"Dr. Meredith Belbin defined a team role as a tendency to behave, contribute and interrelate with others in a particular way. 15 It is important to select team members carefully and to form a team where all roles are covered. Each virtual team member must also understand his or her role(s) on the team. † (Schwalbe, 2011) Discussion and Conclusions Organizations such as IBM, Microsoft, Whirlpool as well as SMEs are reaping the benefits of virtual teams for some time now. It has been a well-recognized fact that virtual team is not a passing tide but it is here to stay. Virtual teams are rising in numbers nowadays and even small technology companies are now adapting virtual team practice for recruiting the best people from all over the globe and reduce the cost. As outlined in previous sections, virtual teams do have advantaged and some disadvantages as well. To benefit from advantages and to minimize the impact of disadvantages a project manager can focus on factors that positively affect the virtual team’s performance. As indicated by previous researchers, increase in trust, comfort level and communication effectiveness leads to better project success. All of the above discussed disadvantages can be overcome by following a different leadership approach, trainings, greater role clarity and effective communication strategies. Also earlier discussed factors that affect virtual teams, if managed properly can result in a successful project. In addition, the companies using virtual teams can minimize their operating costs and maximize the profit margins. Additionally, the employees working in virtual teams are at advantages when it comes to working in their own home, own time, and reduction of commuting costs. Therefore, organizations should look into setting up virtual teams for different tasks whenever possible. To reap the benefits of virtual teams in projects and minimize the impact of disadvantages virtual team managers should manage the outlined factors properly and should also follow best practices outlined in next section. Best Practices When running virtual teams, some of the best practices include: An instant messaging program can be used to create a sense of presence amongst members of the team. Chat is a good way to have side conversations during meetings to gain consensus, confirm understanding or ask questions. Quick questions can be asked through instant messenger as a substitute for popping into someone’s cubicle. Services for syncing files, bug tracking, project management, source control, web conferencing, conference calls, screen recording, usability testing and so on. A virtual phone system allows mapping of phone extensions to any phone number. Advance features allow callers to dial by name, get placed into a phone queue or get recorded answers back from a phone tree. In-person meetings are also a good option; it helps build team cohesion and trust and can help people get to know each other on a deeper level. But they are by no means critical. Bringing everyone together once a year may cost a little, but it’s still often cheaper than paying local salaries and rent, and increases the efficiency of team.

Corruption in the Church and Society Reflected in The Canterbury Tales :: Canterbury Tales Essays

Corruption in the Church and Society Reflected in The Canterbury Tales  Ã‚  Ã‚   In discussing Chaucer's collection of stories called The Canterbury Tales, an interesting picture or illustration of the Medieval Christian Church is presented. However, while people demanded more voice in the affairs of government, the church became corrupt -- this corruption also led to a more crooked society. Nevertheless, there is no such thing as just church history; This is because the church can never be studied in isolation, simply because it has always related to the social, economic and political context of the day. In history then, there is a two way process where the church has an influence on the rest of society and of course, society influences the church. This is naturally because it is the people from a society who make up the church....and those same people became the personalities that created these tales of a pilgrimmage to Canterbury.   Ã‚  Ã‚   The Christianization of Anglo-Saxon England was to take place in a relatively short period of time, but this was not because of the success of the Augustinian effort. Indeed, the early years of this mission had an ambivalence which shows in the number of people who hedged their bets by practicing both Christian and Pagan rites at the same time, and in the number of people who promptly apostatized when a Christian king died. There is certainly no evidence for a large-scale conversion of the common people to Christianity at this time. Augustine was not the most diplomatic of men, and managed to antagonize many people of power and influence in Britain, not least among them the native British churchmen, who had never been particularly eager to save the souls of the Anglo-Saxons who had brought such bitter times to their people. In their isolation, the British Church had maintained older ways of celebrated the major festivals of Christianity, and Augustine's effort to compel them to conform to modern Roman usage only angered them. When Augustine died (some time between 604 and 609 AD), then, Christianity had only a precarious hold on Anglo-Saxon England, a hold which was limited largely to a few in the aristocracy. Christianity was to become firmly established only as a result of Irish efforts, who from centers in Scotland and Northumbria made the common people Christian, and established on a firm basis the English Church. At all levels of society, belief in a god or gods was not a matter of choice, it was a matter of fact.

Human Movement Essay

Kinesiology, plainly put is the study of human movement and all aspects to it. It is the science of human movement. It is comprehensive in its outlook in that it looks at being part of the physical activity (the experience), class room study of the theories and concepts that make an activity qualify as physical (scholarly) and the professional practice connected with physical practice (Hoffman, 2009). It looks at the muscles-their make up and how they contribute to human movement, the skeleton-make up and contribution to human movement, and the brain in the same context as the previous two. It makes a practitioner of Kinesiology understand human movement from all angles – the why, what, when and which. Method: Since this study entails all aspects of the human movement, so to does its learning. The use of a high school football team was to allow sight of human movement in real time from a passive position. It brought in play the subjectivity of the human mind in the observational data collection aspect of the research. By its very nature football is a contact sport. It thus presented the research with the best tool to observe the different components that constitute human movement. The preconceived notions of the human mind would be make for interesting reading when tested against the scientific results. Since not all the three different components could be scientifically measured at the same time, the research was focused on the head. This is from the realization that head impacts result in concussions. This is an injury that has the very real possibility of ending ones career but also could end up in death. To best investigate the impact to head injuries, the research used the Head Impact Telemetry System (HITS). This is a wireless monitoring system capable to rapidly identify athletes who have sustained an impact to the helmet that has the potential of being injurious. It is made to produce real-time post impact data and transmit the results to a computer not more than 150 yd (137m) from the helmet via radio waves. When out of range, an onboard storage unit would record up to 100 hits and transmit when back on range. HITS allows for objectivity in the research. For Kinesiology, to qualify as a science, measurement must be precise and consistent. Head impact data was captured when a single accelerometer exceeded the preset 15g threshold. Data from 8 milliseconds pre to 32 milliseconds post impact was transmitted and stored. The dependent variables set were linear acceleration, rotational acceleration, jerk force, impulse and duration of impact. Results: From the data collected in the course of the season (68 sessions-55 practice days, 13 games), it became clear that, there were more impacts during games than during practice. The greatest number of knocks was experienced by defensive line players, offensive linemen, offensive skill players and defensive skill players in descending order. In ascending order, the location of helmet with most frequently hits was the top, side, back and front. Game situations resulted in higher linear acceleration than practice impacts. Top of the helmet hits had the greatest linear acceleration followed by front, back and side. Again, game time impacts caused more rotational acceleration than practice. The line players experienced harder hits than skill players in this category. It was also clear that most forceful hits were as a result of front then back then side and lowest top hit. Looking at head jerk, impact force, impact pulse and duration of the impact, the figures were higher during game times than practice. The offensive line and defensive skill players had an equal occurrence of head jerk but higher than the others. The line players had longer duration of impact, more impact impulse and force of impact than the skill players. Maximum head jerk and impact force was experienced as result of hits at the top followed by the front, back and side. For the duration of impact, the order was the same but in reverse role. Also noted, the harder a player was hit the higher the linear acceleration, maximum jerk, force and impulse. The same was true for a soft hit. Conclusion: From the research, this paper has been able to come to some conclusions as a result of the available data. Some of the conclusions justified the subjective view in the researcher at the beginning of the undertaking while some have resulted in the researchers’ change of perception. It was clear from the data that there were higher linear acceleration collisions in high schools than from statistics available about research done on colleges. This could be as a result of the kids wanting to impress. They clearly may not have and full knowledge of the consequences of their actions. In high schools the chance of a college scholarship, means one could have a greater chance of success in life as a result of the extra academic qualifications one acquired. The higher linear acceleration collisions have a higher concussive chance. This makes the high school football player more at risk as very few have compressive medical covers that would give them the kind of specialized treatment necessary should the worst happen. Schools by the nature of their medical cover can not to provide this. In high school, there were more top helmet impacts than in college. It meant a higher linear acceleration and also impact force magnitude. This was a very dangerous location. It exposed the boys to a higher risk of concussion and severe cervical injury. This could easily mean career ending injury, paralysis or even death. There was need for more effort to be put into coaching. They could help teach the boys proper tackling techniques and make them understand the advantage of keeping the head high and thus avoiding helmet contact. It could be that since the college players are more mature, they do not let blood to run into their heads. They are committed in their tackles and at the same time aware of what the consequences of their actions are if not watched properly. Since the boys in high school were still maturing, they were generally smaller in mass and height as compared to their college equivalent. The more reason why they needed to be taught well. In high school, the most dangerous positions were the Quarterback, running backs and wide receiver in decreasing severity. They had the highest linear acceleration impacts. These could be as a result of them been always in full flight (speed) and in open field. These is unlike their counterparts the offensive line and defensive skill players. These may have the highest number of hits on them but the impact is low. The reason could be because they were always near each other and they do not achieve full acceleration before getting hit. The guys who get hit all the time were line men. These guys were involved in every play in the field. Finally, in high school because of the small pool of players, some ended up playing more than one position. This increased the risk of injury. This research did raise some very pertinent issues. They need to have proper coaching in high schools should go along way in reducing the chances of serious injury in the field. Also, the better knowledge of head injury risks should make for better understanding of how to tackle and care for them should and when they occur. This research has given birth to invaluable knowledge for Kinesiologists.

Fidel Castro Psychobiography

Life Events of Fidel Castro The psychobiography to the life of Fidel Castro. Carl Jung divided his developmental theory into three parts: childhood, puberty to young adulthood and middle age. Carl Jung believed that â€Å"we develop and grow regardless of age and we are always moving toward a more complete level of self-realization† (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). I believed that parents have a big role in child’s development of personality; and they can shape the child personality through their influences.Fidel Castro was born one of several illegitimate children to prosperous sugar farmer Angel Castro y Argiz and his household maid Lina Ruz Gonzalez, on August 13, 1926. Fidel Castro is one of the world’s oldest dictators and in many ways the typical narcissistic oppressor. Theorists had tried to explain his behavior; however many accounts portray Castro to have been brought up in a supportive family even though he grew up with the stigma of being an illegitimate. â €Å"The ego begins to form substantively only when children become able to distinguish between themselves and other people† (Schultz & Schultz, 2009).He attended Roman Catholic boarding schools in Santiago de Cuba and High School in Havana, where he proved to be a talented student an outstanding athlete. In 1945 he entered Law School at the University of Havana and joined the Orthodox Party, which strive for economic independence, political liberty, social justice and an end to corruption. In 1947 Castro temporarily left the university and in 1948 he took part in urban riots in Bogota, Colombia. He returned to Havana, while being a student Castro married Mirta Diaz-Balart a philosophy student whose wealthy family had political ties to Cuban military leader Fulgencio Batista.In 1949 his first son was born but because he had no income to support the family the marriage ended. According to Jung, from â€Å"teenage years through young adulthood, we are concerned with completing activities such as education, beginning a career, marriage and family† (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Castro as a lawyer, tried to mount legal challenge to Fulgencio Batista’s reign, demonstrating that the Cuban Constitution had been violated when the courts refused to hear his petition, Castro decided that legal attacks on Batista would never change.On July 26, 1953 Castro and his brother Raul, led about 160 men in a suicidal attack on the Moncada military barracks in Santiago de Cuba in hopes of generating a popular revolution, â€Å"The persona archetype a public face we wear to present ourselves as someone different from who we really are† (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Most of the men were killed and Castro and his brother were captured and sentenced by the government to 15 years’ imprisonment. They were later released in a political amnesty and went to Mexico to continue to campaign against Batista regime.Castro began to make plans to return to Cuba, while i n Mexico he met Ernesto â€Å"Che† Guevara who was destined to play an important role in the Cuban Revolution. These rebels acquired weapons, trained and coordinated their return with fellow insurgents in Cuban cities. On December 2, 1956 Castro and armed expedition landed on the eastern coast of Cuba, they were detected and ambush and many of the rebels were killed. Castro and the other leaders survived and made it to the mountains and reminded there for a while attacking government forces and installations and organizing resistance cells in the cities across Cuba.With the help of revolutionary volunteers throughout the island, Fidel Castro’s forces won a string of victories over Batista government. As the undisputed revolutionary leader, Castro became commander in chief of the armed forces in Cuban government. Castro soon implemented a Soviet-style communist regime in Cuba, much to the dismay of the United States. This led to decades of conflict between Cuba and the USA including such incidents like The Cuban Missile Crisis and the Mariel boatlift.Castro survived countless assassination attempts, some of them crude and quite clever; the collective unconscious is â€Å"the universal memories and experiences of humankind, represented in the symbols, stories, and images â€Å"It is the collection of our experiences as a species, a kind of instinctual knowledge† (Schultz & Schultz, 2009). Cuba was placed under economic embargo which has had serious effect on the Cuban economy. â€Å"Introverts focus on their own thought and feelings. † (Zimbardo Pg. 392) They are not sociable and prefer to be alone.Extrovert people are more interested in the world and the things going on in it then in their own life. They are outgoing and friendly. They enjoy being in social situations. Jung claimed â€Å" few people have all pairs of forces in balance. Usually one is more dominant determining a person’s personality. † ( Zimbardo Pg. 39 2) As we can see, although Jung was influenced by Freud’s personality theory, but his personality theory focuses on parents’ influence on a child’s personality and ego. Carl Jung died in 1961.

Labeling Theory Essays - Criminology, Social Philosophy, Free Essays

Labeling Theory Essays - Criminology, Social Philosophy, Free Essays Labeling Theory Labeling Theory Labeling theory is associated with Howard Becket and was introduced in 1963. Labeling theory is the theory of deviance that views deviance as a label assigned to behavior and individuals by particular figures of authority. That means that no one is actually a deviant and no action is deviant unless specified by society. The acts that are considered deviant today, may be acceptable or even normal tomorrow or in another part of the world. This theory doesnt plausibly explain Nevet and Begonias behavior. Strain Theory French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858 1917) used the term anomie to describe a state of normlessness in society, when many people are unclear as to the expectations others have of them (Durkheim, 1951). The importance of Durkheims study for an understanding of deviance is his focus on the way a society can actually create strains in the lives of its individual members. Anomie theory in essence states that deviant behavior is encouraged by strains builkt into the very fabric or society. Durkheims concept was borrowed from American sociologist Robert Merton in his study of deviance. Merton (1956) analyzed societal strains by pointing out the variety of ways that people might respond to such strain. As the strains occur in all walks of life so too do the (often-deviant) adaptations. The rebellion response to strain explains Nevet and Begonias action by offering that they were encouraged to act deviantly because there was so much strain of them to be perfect

ESL Present Perfect Worksheets

ESL Present Perfect Worksheets The present perfect isnt a verb tense unique to English, but it can still be complicated for beginning ESL students to master. Though French, Italian, German, and Spanish use the present perfect to address past events, in English, the present perfect connects a past moment to the present moment in time. The present perfect is often used either to reference life experiences, to invoke recent past events that have influenced the present moment, or to reference a span of time that began in the past and extends into the present. The present perfect is one of the most difficult tenses to teach and to learn. Below is a quick review of the present perfect, followed by two worksheets designed to help ESL students practice their use of the verb tense. Present Perfect Positive Form Review Subject have   past participle objects Examples: Tom has lived in New York for 10 years.We have studied French since 2003. Present Perfect Negative Form Subject have not past participle objects Examples: She hasnt met Peter.They havent finished the job yet. Present Perfect Question Form (Question Word) have subject past participle? Examples: Has she worked here for a long time?Where has she gone? Important Note:  Regular past participles in -ed, irregular past participles of verbs vary and must be studied. Yet / Just / Already Yet is used in the present perfect negative and question forms.Just is used in the present perfect positive form.Already is used in the present perfect positive form. Examples: Have you finished the job yet?Shes just left for Chicago.Theyve already eaten lunch. Since / For Since and for are common time expressions used with the present perfect tense. Since is used with specific dates. For is used with periods of time. Examples: Janet has worked at this company since 1997.Weve lived in this house for five years. Present Perfect Worksheet 1 Conjugate the verb in parentheses using the form indicated. In the case of questions, use the indicated subject as well. How long ______ (he/live) in New Jersey?Peter ______ (not play) baseball since 1987.I ______ (speak) Russian for 20 years.We _____ (not see) Tom since Christmas.Has ________ (Alan/fly) in an airplane before?Shannon _____ (not/go) to lunch yet.Our class _____ (take) a field trip three times this year.Where _____ (they/move) to?Jennifer _____ (ask) that question four times today.You _____ (not eat) lunch yet, have you?Jason _____ (want) to move to New York since he was 5 years old.How long _____ (they/know) Peter?Alexandra _____ (work) for IBM since 2002.Jeff _____ (buy) a few books this week.Sally ______ (not read) that book yet._____ (they/leave) for work yet?Bill _____ (not/drive) very far today.We _____ (enjoy) eating seafood all of our lives._____ (he/watch) the documentary yet?I _____ (not/finish) the job yet. Present Perfect Worksheet 2 Choose the correct time expression used with the present perfect tense. They have lived in that house (since/for) 10 years.She has (just/yet) gone to the bank.Franklin hasnt arrived in Boston (yet/already)We have worked at this company (since/for) 2008.Jason hasnt telephoned me (since/for) two weeks.How (long/much) have you known Susan?Theyve (already/yet) studied the past simple tense.Our mothers have (just/yet) left for the station.The president has traveled to more than 20 countries (since/for) he was elected.Thomas hasnt had time to read the book (just/yet).Alice has told me shes (yet/already) been to that park.My daughters (just/since) finished her homework.Have they (already/yet) spoken to Mr. Peters?Ive (just/for) interviewed the best candidate for the job.Our coach hasnt chosen the starting team (already/yet).Bob and Tim have (already/yet) decided where they are going on vacation.Have you purchased a new computer (just/yet)?Sam has wanted to go to Japan (for/since) he was a little child.Jason hasnt worked here (since/for) very long.Our boss has ( just/yet) hired a new engineer. _______________________________________________________________________________ Present Perfect Worksheet  1 - Corrections Conjugate the verb in parentheses using the form indicated. In the case of questions, use the indicated subject as well. How long  has he lived  in New Jersey?Peter  hasnt played baseball  since 1987.I  have spoken  Russian for 20 years.We  havent seen  Tom since Christmas.Has Alan flown  in an airplane before?Shannon  hasnt gone  to lunch yet.Our class  has taken  a field trip three times this year.Where  have they moved  to?Jennifer  has asked  that question four times today.You  havent eaten  lunch yet, have you?Jason  has wanted  to move to New York since he was 5 years old.How long  have they known  Peter?Alexandra  has worked  for IBM since 2002.Jeff  has bought  a few books this week.Sally  hasnt read  that book yet.Have they left  for work yet?Bill  hasnt driven  very far today.We  have enjoyed  eating seafood all of our lives.Has he watched  the documentary yet?I  havent finished  the job yet. Present Perfect Worksheet 2 - Corrections Choose the correct time expression used with the present perfect tense. They have lived in that house  for  10 years.She has  just  gone to the bank.Franklin hasnt arrived in Boston  yet.We have worked at this company  since  2008.Jason hasnt telephoned me  for  two weeks.How  long  have you known Susan?Theyve  already  studied the past simple tense.Our mothers have  just  left  for  the station.The President has traveled to more than 20 countries  since  he was elected.Thomas hasnt had time to read the book  yet.Alice told me shes  already  been to that park.My daughters  just  finished her homework.Have they  already  spoken to Mr. Peters?Ive  just  interviewed the best candidate for the job.Our coach hasnt chosen the starting team  yet.Bob and Tim have  already  decided where they are going on vacation.Have you purchased a new computer  yet?Sam has wanted to go to Japan  since  he was a little child.Jason hasnt worked here  for  very long.Our boss has  just  hired a new engine er.